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Matthanja Bieze,1,2,* Annelotte Pauline van Haaps,3,4,* Leonardo Kapural,5 Sean Li,6 Kris Ferguson,7 Ralph de Vries,8 Michael E Schatman,9,10 Velja Mijatovic,3,4 Jan Willem Kallewaard1,11 1Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Management, Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; 2Department of Anesthesia and Pain Management, Toronto General Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; 3Department of Reproductive Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Center location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; 4Amsterdam Reproduction and Development, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; 5Carolina’s Pain Institute and Center for Clinical Research, Winston Salem, North Carolina, USA; 6National Spine and Pain Centers, Shrewsbury, New Jersey, USA; 7Aspirus Langlade Hospital Pain Clinic, Antigo, Wisconsin, USA; 8Medical Library, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; 9Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative Care & Pain Medicine, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA; 10Department of Population Health – Division of Medical Ethics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA; 11Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Management, Rijnstate Ziekenhuis, Arnhem, the Netherlands*These authors contributed equally to this workCorrespondence: Jan Willem Kallewaard, Department of Anaesthesiology and Pain Management, Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, Email j.w.kallewaard@amsterdamumc.nlAim: Visceral pain, characterized by pain that is diffuse and challenging to localize, occurs frequently and is difficult to treat. In cases where the pain becomes intractable despite optimal medical management, it can affect patients’ Quality of Life (QoL). Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) has emerged as a potential solution for intractable visceral pain.Purpose: In this narrative review, we collected all evidence regarding the efficacy of SCS for visceral pain across various underlying conditions.Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science in which articles published from October 1st, 1963 up to March 7th, 2023 were identified.Results: Seventy articles were included in this review of which most were retrospective cohort studies, case series and case reports. The studies, often with a small number of participants, reported on SCS for chronic pancreatitis, anorectal pain and bowel disorders, gynaecological diagnoses, visceral pelvic pain, urological disorders and finally general visceral pain. They found positive effects on pain and/or symptom relief, opioid consumption, anxiety and depression and QoL. Complications occurred frequently but were often minor and reversible.Conclusion: Better screening and selection criteria need to be established to optimally evaluate eligible patients who might benefit from SCS. A positive outcome of a sympathetic nerve block appears to be a potential indicator of SCS effectiveness. Additionally, women receiving SCS for endometriosis had a better outcome compared to other indications. Finally, SCS could also relief functional symptoms such as voiding problems and gastroparesis. Complications could often be resolved with revision surgery. Since SCS is expensive and not always covered by standard health insurance, the incorporation of cost-analyses is recommended. In order to establish a comprehensive treatment plan, including selection criteria for SCS, rigorous prospective, possibly randomized and controlled studies that are diagnosis-oriented, with substantial follow-up and adequate sample sizes, are needed.Keywords: neuromodulation, SCS, spinal cord stimulation, visceral pain, chronic pelvic pain, chronic pain |
