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Doktorska radnja bavi se zadarskim kamenarstvom i klesarstvom od antike do baroka. U tom je razdoblju kamen predstavljao najznačajniji građevinski materijal. Fenomen je obrađen na dvije razine: zanatsko-tehnološkoj i simboličkoj. Većina radnje obrađuje proces koji obuhvaća vađenje, obradu, prijevoz, trgovinu i građenje kamenom. Simboličkim konotacijama kamena bavi se drugo poglavlje. Zajedno čine tekstualni dio radnje. Drugi je dio disertacije glosarij kamenarsko-klesarskih pojmova koji se koriste ili su se koristili na našoj obali. Zbog naglašavanja zanemarene zanatsko-tehnološke razine klesarstva korišten je metodološki postupak s jasnim odmakom od uvriježenoga povijesno-umjetničkoga istraživanja temeljenoga na estetskim načelima. Najveći dio radnje rezultat je analize objavljene građe povijesnih, povijesno-umjetničkih i arheoloških istraživanja. Izvršena su i terenska istraživanja zadarskih kamenoloma i pregledane kamene strukture krucijalnih povijesnih građevina. U određenoj mjeri radnja je interdisciplinarna jer su rubno korištene spoznaje iz prirodnih, sintetičkih, tehničkih i društvenih znanosti, te kozervatorsko-restauratorske struke. Početci zadarskoga kamenarstva vežu se uz pojavu liburnske gradinske naseljenosti krajem II. do sredine I. tisućljeća prije Krista. Eksploatacija je bila primitivna te podređena i uvjetovana krškim dinarskim reljefom. Kamen se vadio u neposrednoj blizini naselja jednostavnom metodom odvajanja, tj. cijepanja po prirodnim slojevima. U najrazvijenijoj fazi (IV. i III. st. prije Krista) pod grčkim utjecajem pojavit će se organizirano vađenje i obrada velikih, često bunjastih, blokova klesarskim alatima. Graditeljstvo karakterizira suhozidna gradnja. Na nekadašnjem liburnskom naselju nastaje rimska kolonija Iader. Za potrebe izgradnje otvoreni su brojni kamenolomi na zadarskim otocima (Ugljanu, Pašmanu, Dugom otoku, Ravi, Lavdari, Abi, Ižu, Premudi, Molatu, Istu, Sestrunju, Kornatu, Žutu i dr.). Spadali su u red manjih komunalnih, a riječ je o jednoj od najvećih koncentracija antičkih kamenoloma na našoj obali. Eksploatacija i obrada kamena vršena je po ustaljenome obrascu. Vadio se cijepanjem po slojevima, pomoću klinova postavljenih u izdubljene rupe te dubljenjem separacijskih kanala. Obrađivan je u kamenolomima i gradskim radionicama po strogo zacrtanome planu i u fazama. Za klesanje su koristili standardizirane kovane alate. Intenzivno su se uvozili vapnenci iz srednje Dalmacije. Srednjodalmatinski i istarski kamenolomi imali su veći regionalni značaj od zadarskih. No u širim okvirima Rimskoga Carstva, gdje je dekorativnost bila imperativ, nisu imali veći značaj. Skupocjena mramorna i granitna građa uvozila se uglavnom iz Egejskoga 259 bazena, Italije i Egipta. U Iader se uvozio najviše mramor, a rjeđe granit. Uz otočne, postojali su i kopneni kamenolomi. Otvarani su za potrebe antičkih naselja u zaleđu. Veliki doprinos rimskoga graditeljstva bila je uporaba vapna za izradu različitih mortova. Mort je omogućio čvrstu gradnju manjim kamenom. U Iaderu je prevladavalo zidanje pravilnim kamenom (opus quadratum, isodomum i pseudoisodomum). Uslijed opće krize u kasnoj antici dolazi do opadanja kamenarstva. Gasi se većina zadarskih kamenoloma ili im je aktivnost krajnje reducirana. Kasnu antiku i rano kršćanstvo obilježit će krčenje i recikliranje derutne antičke građe, tj. sam Iader postaje gradski kamenolom. Recikliranje će se nastaviti u srednjem vijeku i postat će trajno obilježje zadarskoga klesarstva sve do pojave baroka. Graditeljska aktivnost svedena je na užurbano utvrđivanje grada, a prevladava zidanje priklesancima i spolijama. Prihvaćanjem kršćanstva dolazi do novoga zamaha u graditeljstvu. Uz episkopalni kompleks podižu se brojne crkve u gradu, zaleđu i na otocima. Kamen se nabavljao krčenjem antičkih ruševina ili iz manjih otočnih kamenoloma. Zidanje grubim priklesancima postaje opća pojava. Uvoz mramora bio je krajnje smanjen i isključivo vezan uz carske kamenolome u Egejskome bazenu. U klesarstvu je još vidljiviji pad zanatske kvalitete. Prevladava reljefnost, krajnja stilizacija te reduciranje i osiromašenje antičkoga umjetničkog repertoara. Tendencija je preklesavanja antičkih spomenika u ranokršćanske. U Zadru dolazi do profiliranja domaćih radionica za opremanje crkava. U ranome srednjem vijeku nastavljen je negativan trend te organizirana eksploatacija u kamenolomima prestaje. Umjesto toga, kamen je vađen iz omanjih jama u neposrednoj okolici ili se krčio s antičkih ruševina. Tehnika zidanja imitira kasnoantičke (ranokršćanske) obrasce, ali je puno grublja. Uz obilje vapnenoga morta zidalo se omanjim priklesancima, rjeđe lomljencima, slaganim u polupravilne redove (kombinaciju opus incertuma i opus pseudoisodomuma). I u klesarstvu dolazi do nazadovanja. Klesanje je reljefno, shematizirano i uglavnom po uzoru na ranokršćanske obrasce. Tehnikom više podsjećaju na drvene rezbarije nego na klesarska djela. Urezuju se u vapnencu preko nacrtanih predložaka (npr. kasnoantičkih mozaika) i oslikavaju. Ponekad se reciklira antički ili ranokršćanski mramor. U Zadru i zaleđu profiliraju se domaće radionice koje potvrđuju kontinuitet zanata. S romanikom nastupa oporavak kamenarstva. Otvaraju se brojni novi i zapušteni stari antički kamenolomi. Najčešće se eksploatacija s brežuljaka premješta uz obalu. Tehnika vađenja kamena nije se puno razlikovala od antičke i ostat će praktički ista do XIX. st. Svi klesarski alati, uz manje modifikacije, također su preuzeti iz antike. Uz bijele rudistne vapnence (Molat i Dugi otok) na zadarskim otocima otvarani su brojni mali kamenolomi suroga vapnenca (na Abi, Velikoj i Maloj Lavdari, Sestrunju, Rivnju, Ugljanu, Tunu, Zverincu, Žutu i dr). Na kopnu su postojali manji kamenolomi lokalnoga karaktera koji su opskrbljivali pojedina naselja. Kao i u antici sedra se rezala na koritima krških rijeka. U reprezentativnome graditeljstvu napušta se zidanje priklesanim kamenom, a mjera i modul postaje klesanac. U klesarstvu također dolazi do kvalitativnoga skoka. U drugoj polovini XII. st. pojavit će se u Zadru klesarstvo kvalitetom potpuno integrirano u onovremena umjetnička stremljenja. Kao i u graditeljstvu, karakterizira ga uporaba različitoga kamena, tj. polikromija. Uz domaće vapnence koristili su se reciklirani mramori i rapska breča. U gotici dolazi do daljnje specijalizacije posla. Glavna osoba na gradilištima bio je protomajstor, projektant i voditelj gradilišta, a ponekad klesar ili graditelj. U Zadru je postojao komunalni protomajstor zadužen za održavanje komunalnih zgrada i obrambenih zidina. Velika graditeljska i klesarska djelatnost dovela je do školovanja mladih kadrova. Sastojalo se od višegodišnje prakse kod uglednih majstora. Za veće su se poslove majstori udruživali u privremena poslovna partnerstva. I u klesarstvu dolazi do podjele posla. Kamenari lome i grubo obrađuju kamen, a kamenu plastiku izrađuju vrsni klesari. Diversifikacija zanata tekla je sporo te su postojali majstori marangoni koji objedinjuju različite zanate. Bavili su se graditeljstvom, a podjednako su koristili drvo i kamen. U renesansnome graditeljstvu XV. i XVI. st. dominira izgradnja novih utvrda. Za tu svrhu mletačke vlasti u Zadar šalju vojne inženjere i arhitekte, a domaći graditelji i klesari bili su im podređeni. Primjećuje se veća prisutnost graditelja iz italskih gradova. Radi gradnje utvrda ruše se mnoge srednjovjekovne crkve, zidine i stambeni objekti. Primjećuje se veća mobilnost majstora te uvoz bračkoga, korčulanskoga, trogirskoga i istarskoga kamena. Zbog pada klesarskih narudžbi broj se domaćih majstora i radionica značajno smanjio u odnosu na XIV. i XV. st. Barokno kamenarstvo u XVII. i XVIII. st. bilo je u rukama vlasti i podređeno javnim radovima koje vode mletački arhitekti i vojni inženjeri. Zbog nedostatka kvalificirane radne snage vlasti u Zadar šalju mletačke majstore. Klesarstvo je obilježeno dominacijom venetskih oltarista i uvozom talijanskoga dekorativnog kamena. U XVII. st. venecijanski oltaristi borave u gradu privremeno, a u XVIII. st. pojedinci se trajno nastanjuju te osnivaju radionice. Domaće se klesarstvo potpuno odvaja od graditeljstva te počinje izmještati iz grada na otoke. Može se zaključiti da je od antike pa do XX. st. sva graditeljsko-klesarska djelatnost u Zadru počivala na uporabi kamena s obližnjih otoka. Stoljećima su se uvozili srednjodalmatinski i istarski vapnenci. Alohtoni dekorativni kamen najvećim je djelom antički mramor koji se stoljećima reciklirao, a u baroku su prisutni brojni dekorativni mramori i vapnenci iz Italije. U dugom razdoblju zadarskoga kamenarstva od antike do baroka ističe se višestruki kontinuitet: u otočnosti kamenarstva, uporabi domaćega arhitektonsko-građevnog kamena i dominantnoj ulozi domaće klesarske proizvodnje u gradu. The doctoral thesis deals with Zadar stone quarrying and stonemasonry from antiquity to Baroque. During this period, stone was the most important building material. The phenomenon is analyzed on craft-technological and symbolical level. Majority of the thesis studies a process that involves extracting, processing, transporting, trading and building with stone. The second chapter deals with symbolic connotations of stone. Together they form textual part of the thesis. The second part of the dissertation is a glossary of stonemasonry terms that were or still are used on our coast. In order to emphasize the neglected craft and technological level of stonemasonry, a methodological procedure was used with a clear departure from traditional historical and artistic research based on aesthetic principles. Most of the work is the result of an analysis of published material from research in history, art history and archaeology. Field surveys of quarries in Zadar were carried out and stone structures of crucial historical buildings were examined The work is interdisciplinary to a certain extent, since knowledge from natural, synthetic, technical and social sciences is used as well as information related to conservation and restoration profession. The beginnings of stone quarrying in Zadar are related to the emergence of Liburnian hill-fort settlements at the end of the second to the mid-first millennium BC. The exploitation was primitive, subordinated and conditioned by the Dinaric karst relief. The stone was extracted in the immediate vicinity of the settlements using a simple method of separation, i.e. splitting by natural layers. Organized extraction and processing of large blocks often with roughly dressed surface (bugna) using masonry tools emerged under the Greek influence at the most advanced stage (4th and 3rd centuries BC). Construction is characterized by drywall construction. Roman colony of Iader was founded in the former Liburnian settlement. Numerous quarries were opened on the Zadar islands for the construction purposes (Ugljan, Pašman, Dugi Otok, Rava, Lavdara, Abi, Iz, Premuda, Molat, Ist, Sestroni, Kornat, Žut, etc.). They belonged to smaller communal examples, and this is one of the densest concentrations of ancient quarries on our coast. The exploitation and processing of stone was done following a standard pattern. It was extracted by splitting into layers, using wedges placed in gouged holes, and by deepening the separation channels. It was processed in quarries and town workshops according to a strictly conceived plan and in stages. They used standard forged tools for carving. Limestones from central Dalmatia were intensively imported. The central Dalmatian and Istrian quarries had 263 greater regional significance than the Zadar quarries but in the wider contexts of the Roman Empire where decorativeness was imperative they were of little importance. Expensive marble and granite were imported mainly from the Aegean, Italy and Egypt. Mostly marble was imported into Iader, and less frequently granite. In addition to the islands, there were also land quarries. They were opened for the needs of ancient settlements in the hinterland. A great contribution of the Roman construction was the use of lime for making various mortars. The mortar allowed solid construction with smaller stones. Masonry with regular squared stone blocks was dominant in Iader (opus quadratum, isodomum and pseudoisodomum). The general crisis of Late Antiquity had led to decline in stone quarrying. Most quarries in Zadar were extinguished or their activity was extremely reduced. Late Antiquity and early Christianity will be marked by removing and recycling of waste building material from ancient ruins, in other words Iader itself becomes a city quarry. Recycling will continue in the Middle Ages becoming a permanent feature of stone carving in Zadar until the beginning of Baroque. Building activity was reduced to the hasty fortification of the city, characterized by building with trimmed stone and spolia. A new rise in construction activities happened with the adoption of Christianity. In addition to the episcopal complex numerous churches in the city, hinterland and islands were erected. The stone was procured by digging on ancient ruins or from smaller island quarries. Stonemasonry with roughly semi-dressed stones became a common occurrence. Marble import was extremely reduced and related only to the imperial quarries in the Aegean. There was an even more noticeable decline in craftsmanship reflected in relief-like carving, extreme stylization, and the reduction and impoverishment of the ancient artistic repertoire. The tendency was to reshape ancient monuments into early Christian ones. Local stone carving workshops for furnishing churches emerged in Zadar. In the Early Middle Ages, the negative trend continued, and organized exploitation in quarries ceased. Instead the stone was extracted from smaller pits in the immediate vicinity or it was taken from ancient ruins. The masonry technique imitates late antique (early Christian) patterns but it is much rougher. Along with the abundance of lime mortar, smaller trimmed stones were used, less often rubble stone, arranged in semi-regular rows (a combination of opus incertum and opus pseudoisodomum). Deterioration is also noticeable in stone carving which is relief-like, schematized and mostly following early Christian patterns. The technique is more reminiscent of wood carving than stone carving. The patterns are carved into limestone over drawn templates (e.g. late antique mosaics) and painted. Sometimes ancient or early Christian marble is recycled. In Zadar and the hinterland local stone carving workshops were active, testifying to the continuity of the craft. Recovery of stone quarrying begins with the Romanesque period. Numerous new quarries were opened and abandoned ancient ones were reopened. Most often the exploitation was moved from the hills to the littoral. The technique of quarrying did not differ much from antiquity and will remain practically the same until the 19th century. All stone carving tools were also retained from antiquity with minor modifications. Along with the white limestones (Molat and Dugi otok), numerous small quarries of gray limestone (Abi, Velika and Mala Lavdara, Sestrunj, Rivanj, Ugljan, Tuna, Zverinac, Žut and others) were opened on the Zadar islands. On the mainland, there were smaller local quarries that supplied individual settlements. As in antiquity, tufa was cut on the riverbeds of karst rivers. Stone masonry with trimmed stone was abandoned in representative architecture, and ashlar became a measure and module. Significant progress was also realized in sculpture. In the second half of the 12th century sculpture that was fully integrated with artistic aspirations of the time appeared in Zadar. As in architecture, it is characterized by use of various stones, or polychromy. Recycled marbles and breccia from Rab were used in addition to local limestone. Further specialization of work happened in the Gothic period. The chief person at construction sites was the protomagister, designer and site manager, and sometimes a stonemason or builder. In Zadar, there was a communal protomagister in charge of maintaining communal buildings and defensive walls. Intense construction and stonemasonry activity led to the need to educate young staff. It consisted of years of practice with distinguished masters. For more demanding jobs, the masters cooperated in temporary business partnerships. There was also a division of work in stonemasonry. Quarrymen broke and roughly processed stone, while sculptural forms in stone were made by skilled stone-cutters. The diversification of crafts was slow, and there were masters marangones who combined different crafts. They were engaged in construction using wood and stone equally. Renaissance architecture of the 15th and 16th centuries was dominated by the construction of new forts. For this purpose the Venetian authorities sent military engineers and architects to Zadar, and local builders and stone-cutters were their subordinates. Builders from the Italian cities became more numerous. Many medieval churches, walls and residential buildings were destroyed due to the construction of the forts. Greater mobility of masters could be noticed as well as the import of stone from Brač, Korčula, Trogir and Istria. Due to reduced stonemasons' orders, the number of local craftsmen and workshops was reduced significantly in comparison to the 14th and 15th centuries. Baroque stonemasonry in the 17th and 18th centuries was in the hands of the authorities and in service of public works led by the Venetian architects and military engineers. Due to lack of skilled labor, the authorities sent Venetian masters to Zadar. Stonemasonry was marked by the dominance of Venetian altar masters and the import of Italian decorative stone. In the 17th century the Venetian altar masters resided temporarily in the city, and in the 18th century individuals settled here permanently and workshops were set up. Local stonemasonry was separated fully from construction and its transfer began from the city to the islands. It can be concluded that, from antiquity to the 20th century, all the construction and stonemasonry in Zadar was based on use of stone from the nearby islands. Central Dalmatian and Istrian limestones have been imported for centuries. Allochthonous decorative stone is for the most part ancient marble that has been recycled for centuries, and numerous decorative marbles and limestones from Italy are present in Baroque. In the long period of stonemasonry in Zadar, from antiquity to baroque, there is a great deal of continuity: in the insularity of stonemasonry, the use of local architectural and building stone and the dominant role of local stonemasonry production in the city. |
