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Nogle nye bygninger lever ikke op til forventningerne, når de sættes i drift. Forskning har påvist et gabmellem det forventede og faktiske energiforbrug, men også andre væsentlige parametre kan skuffe i nyebyggerier, f.eks. indeklima, vedligeholdelsesvenlighed eller funktionalitet. Det har negativekonsekvenser for det, der skal foregå i en bygning, for livskvaliteten af dem, der skal være i bygningen ogfor driftsudgifterne, ligesom det øger bygningens negative miljøpåvirkninger.Forskere såvel som praktikere har fundet frem til, at vanskelighederne kan reduceres, hvis bygherrensørger for at den fremtidige drift tænkes ind allerede under designprocessen af et nyt projekt. For atkunne det, skal viden fra bygninger, der allerede er i drift, overføres til designprocessen af nyebygninger. Der er udviklet en række redskaber og metoder, der kan hjælpe med det. Nogle redskaber ogmetoder består i at involvere personer, der har erfaring med bygningsdrift, mens andre redskaber ikkeer baseret på direkte involvering, men i stedet på formalisering (kodificering) af viden. Udgangspunktetfor tidligere forskning har været at desto mere viden vi kan overføre, f.eks. ved mere involvering afdriftspersonale og mere brug af andre redskaber til at overføre viden fra drift til designfasen, desto merevil den fremtidige drift blive taget i betragtning under byggeriet.Ambitionen om at indtænke drift i design er ikke unik for bygningsprojekter. Det er også aktuelt i designaf store skibe. Her har det også negative konsekvenser, hvis driftsfasen ikke tænkes ind fra starten.Derfor sammenligner dette studie, hvordan driftsviden integreres i design af bygninger og skibe.Formålet med dette greb, er dels at se om der er nogle konkrete redskaber der kan deles, og dels for atse hvad sammenligningen bringer af ny viden om det at overføre viden fra drift til design.Det overordnede formål med dette studie er således at undersøge hvordan viden om drift integreres idesign processer af nye bygninger sammenligning med store skibe, med henblik på at øgeperformance af den nye facilitet.Ligeledes inddrager studiet litteratur om viden overførsel fra forskningen i videns ledelse (’knowledgemanagement’). Her er to tilgange til vidensoverførsel dominerende: Den teknokratiske og denadfærdsmæssige tilgang (min oversættelse). Den teknokratiske lægger vægt på at viden formaliseres (kodificeres) og opbevares for at bliver anvendt i en anden kontekst. Den adfærdsmæssige tilgangfokuserer på ’person-delen’ og understreger at meget viden er ’tavs’, personafhængig og ikke kan flyttesuden interaktion.Afhandlingen er artikelbaseret og består foruden en sammenfattende synopsis, af 6 publiceredeforskningsartikler. Artiklerne er baseret primært på kvalitative metoder, herunder et single-case study,ekspert interviews, workshops, fokus gruppe interviews samt et multi-case studie af hvordan driftsvidenintegreres i design processer af hhv. bygninger (2) og færger (3). Yderligere er et paper baseret på enspørgeskemaundersøgelse.Den første del af undersøgelsen fokuserer på bygningsprojekter. Her påviser undersøgelsen, at et stortantal værktøjer og metoder til overføre viden fra drift til design allerede er udviklet, beskrevet ogimplementeret i praksis. Resultaterne viser endvidere, at driftspersonale i vid udstrækning er involveret idesignprocessen for de undersøgte byggesager. Tre hovedparter inden for bygherren er ansvarlige foren vellykket overførsel af viden fra drift til design: den øverste ledelse, bygherreafdeling ogdriftsafdelingen.Dernæst viser undersøgelsen, at facilities managers ikke kun er bekymrede for performanceparametre,såsom energiforbrug eller drift og vedligeholdelse af deres nye bygninger. To af forskningsartiklerne, derer inkluderet i denne afhandling, beskriver de forskellige vanskeligheder forbundet med driften af nyebygninger. En typologi af 12 typer af performance gab i nye bygninger set ud fra en facilities managersperspektiv er udviklet som en del af undersøgelsen.Desuden identificerer afhandlingen 35 specifikke vanskeligheder, som facilities managers i nyebygninger oplever. Baseret på en web-baseret spørgeskemaundersøgelse, hvor danske facilitiesmanagers har svaret, rangeres vanskelighederne fra 'oftest oplevede' til 'mindst ofte oplevede'. Devanskeligheder, der ofte opleves, vedrører digitalt materiale fra byggeprojekter. Andre højt rangeredevanskeligheder inkluderer uventet højt energiforbrug på grund af manglende koordineret idriftsættelseaf tekniske installationer og vanskeligheder med termisk indeklima.Set i lyset af forskellige typer af performance gab er det i mange projekter utilstrækkeligt, atprojektlederen fokuserer på f.eks. energiforbrug og drift og vedligehold. Det er ofte nødvendigt attænke formålet med bygningen i bredere forstand, og projektlederen skal balancere mange typer afperformance. I de cases, der er undersøgt i denne afhandling, hvor projektlederen havde stor fokus pådrift, var der mindre fokus på f.eks. brugeroplevelse og æstetik, samt mindre fokus på det at lede etstort projekt. Det betyder, at hvis f.eks. brugeroplevelse og æstetik er vigtige for at bygningen ellerskibet kan tilgodese sit formål, så ser det altså ikke ud til at løsningen er at udpege en projektleder medstort fokus på drift.Case studierne viste, at der er en sammenhæng mellem på den ene siden hvor mange redskaber ogmetoder, der bruges til at sikre integration af driftsviden i design, og på den anden side tilhørsforhold ogfokus hos bygherrens projektleder. Muligvis modsat af hvad man skulle tro, så bruges der færrestredskaber og metoder, hvis projektlederen har en stærk tilknytning til driften og en langsigtet interesse iden nye bygning eller det nye skib, mens der bruges flest redskaber og metoder, hvis tilknytningen tildriften er svagere. Der er dog ikke noget, der tyder på at de faciliteter, hvor der bruges færrestredskaber, har et mindre fokus på drift; snarere tværtimod. Hvordan kan det være? En mulig forklaringer, at når projektlederen har en indbygget interesse for drift, så sørger vedkommende for at driftsituationen indtænkes med brug af få redskaber og metoder. Derudover har vedkommende i nogletilfælde selv driftsviden. I så fald kan man ikke tale om at skulle overføre viden, da den allerede er der,og det overflødiggør selvsagt redskaber og metoder.I de cases, hvor projektlederen ikke havde stor tilknytning til drift, viste undersøgelsen, at der blev brugtomfattende ressourcer på at overføre viden om drift til designfasen. Desværre er designprocesser i dagallerede rigeligt komplekse, og man taler ligefrem om ’information overload’ i projekter med indikationaf, at noget viden altså vil blive ’spildt’. Det er der også eksempler på i undersøgelsen, f.eks. at krav idetaljerede bygherrestandarder ikke blev indarbejdet i projekterne. Dermed peger afhandlingen, i lighedmed dele af litteraturen om videns ledelse, på at det snarere handler om, hvordan viden integreres, endhvordan den overføres Det ændrer fokus fra mængden af viden, der flyttes rundt i organisationen, til deaktører, der skal samle viden op og integrere den i f.eks. designforslag eller beslutningsoplæg.Blandt de spørgsmål, som fremtidig forskning og praksis må besvare, er derfor, hvordan individermotiveres til at opsamle og integrere viden om drift i de designprocesser, de deltager i, samt hvordan defår adgang til den viden på det tidspunkt, hvor de har brug for det, uden at viden spildes pga.’information overload’ i projekterne. Derudover, hvordan centrale aktører, f.eks. projektledere,balancerer de mange performance parametre, hvis indbyrdes hierarki af vigtighed er betinget afprojektets formål.Ph.d. projektet er støttet af Den Danske Maritime Fond via Maskinmesterskolen København, Sweco A/S,Centre for Facilities Management – Realdania Forskning (CFM), samt DTU. Some new buildings do not live up to expectations when put into operation. For example, research has revealed a gap between expected and actual energy consumption. Other important parameters, such as indoor climate, maintainability or functionality, can also be disappointing in new buildings. This has negative consequences for the activities intended within such buildings, for their occupants’ quality of life, for the cost of operation and for their environmental impact. Both researchers and practitioners have found that difficulties can be reduced if building clients ensure that the future operations of buildings have already been considered in the design process of new projects. This requires that knowledge obtained from buildings already in operation be transferred to the design process of new buildings. A number of tools and methods have been developed to achieve this: some include the direct involvement of experts in building operations, while others are not based on such direct involvement but on codified knowledge instead. The underlying assumption of previous research has been that the more knowledge that can be transferred – e.g. by involving operational staff or using other tools or methods to transfer knowledge from operation to design – the more future operations will be taken into account during design, resulting in enhanced facility performance. The ambition to integrate operational knowledge into design is not unique to building projects. It is also relevant in the design of large ships. Here, negative consequences also occur if operations are not considered from the beginning. Therefore, this study compares how operational knowledge is integrated into the design of buildings and large ships. This approach aims, on the one hand, to see whether there are tools and methods that can be shared, and on the other, to see what new knowledge this comparison reveals about integrating operational knowledge into design. Thus, the overarching purpose of this study is to investigate how operational knowledge is integrated into the design process of buildings in comparison to that of large ships, aiming to improve facility performance.As a second approach, the phenomenon of knowledge transfer from operation to design is studied through the lens of theories on knowledge transfer from knowledge management research. Here, two perspectives on knowledge transfer are dominant: the technocratic and the behavioural approaches. The technocratic approach recommends that knowledge be codified and stored in order to be applied in a new context, whereas the behavioural approach focuses on the ‘people side’, stressing that much knowledge is tacit and can only be transferred through interaction. This thesis is paper-based and consists of six published research papers in addition to a synopsis. The papers rely primarily on qualitative methods, including a single case study, expert interviews, workshops and focus group interviews as well as a multiple case study on how operational knowledge is integrated into the design processes of buildings (2) and ferries (3), respectively. Additionally, one paper is based on a questionnaire survey. As a starting point, the study focuses on building projects. Here, the research shows that a large number of tools and methods to transfer knowledge from operations into the design process have already been developed, described and implemented in practise. Moreover, the findings indicate that operational staff is, to a large extent, involved in the design process of the investigated building cases. Three main parties within the building client were found to be responsible for the successful transfer of knowledge from operation to design: the top management, the building client division and the operations division. Moreover, this study shows that facilities managers are not only concerned about the performance parameters, such as energy consumption or operation and maintenance, of their new buildings. Two of the research papers included in this thesis describe the diverse difficulties related to the operation of new buildings. A typology of 12 performance gap types in new buildings, as seen from a facilities manager’s perspective, is developed. Additionally, the thesis identifies 35 specific difficulties that facilities managers in new buildings experience. Based on the responses to a web-based questionnaire conducted with facilities managers of new buildings in Denmark, the difficulties are ranked from ‘most often experienced’ to ‘least oftenexperienced’. The difficulties most often experienced concern digital material from building projects. Other high-ranked difficulties include unexpectedly high energy consumption due to the lack of commissioning of technical installations and difficulties with indoor thermal climate. In view of the identified performance gaps, in many projects, it is insufficient for project managers of new building projects to limit their focus to, for example, energy consumption and operation and maintenance. A project manager needs to consider the purpose of the building in a broader sense and must balance many types of performance. In the cases examined, where project managers had a strong focus on operations, less attention was paid to, for example, user experience and aesthetics, and less focus was placed on managing a large project. This means that if, for example, user experience and aesthetics are important in order for a building or a ship to meet its purpose, then the solution does not appear to lie in appointing a project manager with a strong focus on operations.The multiple case study brought to light a correlation between on one side the number of tools and methods used to ensure the integration of operational knowledge into design and on the other side the affiliation and focus of the building client’s project manager. Perhaps, in contrast to what one might think, fewer tools and methods were used in those cases in which project managers had a stronger connection to operation and a long-term interest in the new building or ship, while many tools and methods were used in those cases in which project managers’ connection to the operations was weaker. However, nothing suggested that operations were less taken into account in the cases where the least tools or methods were used – the opposite actually seemed to be the case. One possible explanation for this is that when operations are a matter of concern to the project manager, he or she ensures that operations are taken into consideration with limited use of tools and methods. Additionally, in some cases, project managers had prior experience in operation; thus, it was presumably redundant to transfer knowledge – since it was already there. In those cases in which project managers did not have a strong connection to operations, the study showed that extensive resources went into transferring knowledge about operations into the design process. Unfortunately, design processes are rather complex today, and the literature even describes an ‘information overload’ in projects, thus indicating a risk that some knowledge might never reach a project manager’s attention, for instance, and be consequently wasted. This study includes examples in which the requirements outlined in detailed design guidelines were not incorporated into the projects. Hence, this thesis, like certain parts of the body of knowledge management literature, points out that the question a building client needs to ask him or herself is not how more knowledge can be transferred to the design process but rather how various project actors pick up knowledge and integrate it into, for instance, the design or decision proposals. Therefore, how individuals are motivated to seek out and integrate knowledge about operations into the design processes they participate in is one of the questions that future research and practice must answer. Furthermore, it is also necessary to discover how the knowledge that they need can be made accessible at the relevant time and place in order to limit knowledge waste resulting from ‘information overload’ in projects. Moreover, how key actors, such as project managers, balance numerousperformance parameters whose hierarchy of relative importance is contingent on a project’s purpose.This PhD project has been supported by the Danish Maritime Fund through the Copenhagen School of Marine Engineering and Technology Management, Sweco A/S, Center for Facilities Management – Realdania Research (CFM) and DTU. |
