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Aim Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus (MRSA) is a public and occupational health concern, both in community and healthcare settings. In recent years, community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) has emerged as a major causative agent of infections in individuals with no health care exposure or any of the classical risk factors associated with infections. Environmental surfaces frequently touched by hands play a role in the transmission of CA-MRSA, where inanimate objects are considered potential reservoirs and the source of MRSA infections. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of MRSA on environmental surfaces inside a university campus. Methods and Results A total of 1078 high-touch surface samples were collected from door handles, light switches, desks, keyboards and restroom surfaces. MRSA isolates were identified and confirmed by PCR, utilizing the Staph. aureus nuc and mecA genes. Antibiotic resistance profiles were determined using disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concertation methods. In addition, the ability to form biofilms was investigated by the 96-well plate microdilution technique. PCR assays were performed to detect enterotoxin and antibiotic-resistant genes. The genetic diversity of MRSA was determined through multi-locus sequence typing (MLST), spa and agr typing methods. The overall contamination of Staph. aureus and MRSA was 14.6% (157/1078) and 2.8% (30/1078), respectively. The highest rate of MRSA contamination was detected in restroom sinks and door handles. All MRSA isolates were MDR, with the highest resistance observed was against trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Most MRSA isolates (29/30, 97%) carried at least one gene encoding for staphylococcal enterotoxins (SE), with 10 different SE genotypes were observed. A total of 16 different spa types were detected among the 30 MRSA isolates. Multi-locus sequence typing revealed that 21 MRSA isolates belonged to eight known sequence types (ST), while nine isolates were novel strains. The most detected ST and spa types were ST22 and t223, respectively. Agr types I and III were represented in 28 out of the 30 isolates. The majority of the isolates carried SCCmec type IV, but only one isolate was positive for PVL. Conclusions Our findings signify the potential of the high-touch surfaces in harbouring and transmitting MRSA to campus staff and students. Thus, the implementation of effective prevention measures outside the healthcare setting is needed to reduce the risk of acquiring CA-MRSA infections. Significance and Impact MRSA infections impose a profound economic burden due to illness and productivity loss. The results of this study not only help us to better understand the environmental reservoirs of this pathogen, but also provide information about its transmission pathways and healthcare settings entry routs. |
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