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In everyday communication, speakers and listeners make sophisticated inferences about their conversation partner’s intended meaning. They combine their knowledge of the visuo-spatial context with reasoning about the other person's knowledge state and rely on shared assumptions about how language is used to express communicative intentions. However, these assumptions may differ between languages of non-industrialized -- where conversations often primarily take place within a, so called, society of intimates -- and industrialized cultures -- societies of strangers. Here, we study inference in communication in the Tsimane’, an indigenous people of the Bolivian Amazon, who have little contact with industrialization or formal education. Using a referential communication task, we probe how Tsimane' speakers refer to objects in the world around them when there are potential ambiguities (e.g., referring to a cup when there are multiple cups in view) across different visual contexts. Using an eye-tracking task, we probe the real-time inferences that Tsimane' listeners make about the speaker's intentions. We find that Tsimane' speakers use visual (color, size) contrasts to disambiguate referents (e.g., ``Hand me the small cup''), much like English speakers, and they predictively direct their gaze to objects in a contrast set when they hear a modifier (e.g., ``small"). Despite myriad cultural and linguistic dissimilarities between the two populations, the qualitative patterns of behavior and eye-gaze of Tsimane' and English speakers were strikingly similar, suggesting that the communicative expectations underlying many everyday inferences may be shared across cultures. |
