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Dit proefschrift is in belangrijke mate tot stand gekomen op basis van experimenten die ze bij TNO Soesterberg heeft uitgevoerd in het kader van het TRANSUMO project Intelligent Vehicles. A.R.A. van der Horst was haar begeleider. INTRODUCTION . 1 1.1 Context 3 1.2 Research questions and scope . 5 1.3 Scientific and societal relevance . 8 1.3.1 Scientific relevance 8 1.3.2 Societal relevance 10 1.4 Outline of the thesis 11 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 13 2.1 Complexity of the driving task 15 2.2 Descriptions of driving and drivers . 17 2.2.1 Hierarchical model of the driving task (Michon, 1971, 1985) 19 2.2.2 Models related to Michon’s (1971, 1985) hierarchical model of the driving task . 22 2.2.3 Switching between automatized driving and conscious control 24 2.2.4 Models of risk handling . 27 2.3 Traffic safety measures . 29 2.4 Multi-tasking, distraction and mental workload while driving . 32 2.4.1 Multi-tasking . 32 2.4.2 Driver distraction . 33 2.4.3 Mental workload 36 2.4.4 Distraction and mental workload: bearing resemblance but not the same . 39 2.5 Situation awareness . 41 2.6 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems and behavioural adaptation 43 2.6.1 Different types of ADA Systems . 43 2.6.2 Behavioural adaptation 45 2.6.3 Human-centred design and development of ADA Systems 46 2.7 Framework 47 RESEARCH TOOLS 49 3.1 Measuring driving behaviour 51 3.1.1 Instrumented vehicles: road and test tracks . 52 3.1.2 Driving simulator . 53 3.1.3 Self-report measures 54 3.2 Mental workload measurements . 55 3.2.1 Primary task performance 55 3.2.2 Secondary task performance 57 3.2.3 Subjective measures . 59 3.2.4 Physiological measures 59 3.2.5 Combining measures of mental workload . 60 3.3 Driver characteristics 60 3.4 Research tools used in this thesis 61 3.4.1 Experimental tools . 62 3.4.2 Calculation of variables from raw data 64 3.4.3 Statistical analysis for both experiments . 65 ii Driving Behaviour in Unexpected Situations EXPERIMENT 1: DRIVERS’ REACTIONS TO UNEXPECTED EVENTS 67 4.1 Research tools . 69 4.2 Participants 70 4.3 Experimental design 70 4.4 Procedure 74 4.5 Data registration and analysis . 75 4.6 Results . 75 4.6.1 Validation of research construct and setup 76 4.6.2 Differences between trials: within-subject effects on driving behaviour 84 4.6.3 Effects of between-subjects factor: mental workload conditions 86 4.6.4 Effects of the unexpected events: a closer look . 88 4.7 Interpretation of results and additional hypotheses . 97 4.7.1 Overview and interpretation of results . 97 4.7.2 Hypotheses for final experiment 99 4.8 Consequences of current experimental setup for results and lessons learned . 100 4.8.1 Layout of virtual environment . 100 4.8.2 Programming of unexpected events . 101 4.8.3 Programming of lead car’s speed choice . 101 4.8.4 Data recording . 102 4.8.5 Modifications on experimental setup for final experiment - lessons learned 102 EXPERIMENT 2: EFFECTS OF UNEXPECTED BRAKING EVENTS UNDER VARYING MENTAL WORKLOAD CONDITIONS . 105 5.1 Hypotheses 107 5.2 Research tools . 107 5.3 Participants 108 5.4 Experimental design 109 5.5 Procedure 112 5.6 Results . 113 5.6.1 Construct validity and setup 114 5.6.2 Effects of the braking event on driving behaviour 117 5.6.3 Effects of varying mental workload on driving behaviour 132 5.6.4 Interaction effects: braking, urgency and level of mental workload . 136 5.7 Overview of results . 142 5.8 Discussion of experimental setup . 143 5.8.1 Criticality levels and number of unexpected events 143 5.8.2 Effect sizes . 143 5.8.3 Motion sickness . 144 DISCUSSION 145 6.1 Recapitulation: an overview of relevant results 147 6.1.1 Experiment 1: initial hypotheses . 147 6.1.2 Experiment 2: additional hypotheses . 148 6.1.3 Possible under- or overestimation of results 151 6.1.4 Differences explained 152 6.2 Interpretation of results . 154 6.2.1 Mental workload and the driving task: dynamic vs steady-state situations . 154 6.2.2 Michon’s (1971, 1985) hierarchical model of the driving task . 156 6.2.3 Task prioritization 159 6.2.4 Conscious control versus driving in an automatic fashion 160 6.2.5 Risk handling . 162 6.3 Design considerations for ADA Systems 163 Contents iii CONCLUSIONS 167 7.1 Context and research questions . 169 7.1.1 Research questions 169 7.1.2 Research approach . 170 7.2 Findings: Reactions to unexpected, safety-critical events 170 7.2.1 Compensation behaviour and driving style . 170 7.2.2 Task prioritization 171 7.2.3 Automatized driving versus conscious control over the driving task 172 7.3 Reflections on theoretical framework . 172 7.3.1 Latent driver distraction and mental workload 172 7.3.2 The hierarchical model of the driving task 173 7.4 Human-centred design of ADA Systems 174 7.5 Recommendations for further research . 175 REFERENCES 177 |
