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Although on the territory of today's Republic of Croatia there is no significant mining activity and, as such, could not be classified as '' mining country '', it should be noted that the mining and metallurgical traditions reach far into the past. The first traces of copper casting in Croatia were recorded nearly 6, 000 years ago, and they are related with Vučedol civilisation artefacts in surroundings of City of Vinkovci. The Celts gave significant contributions since they founded Sisak in the Pannonian part of the Croatia, started with production of iron, and after the Roman conquest, significant development of mining and metallurgy started. In the area of Western Bosnia and Zrinska Gora (Banija) they mined iron, copper and lead (silver) ore, and smelters and mints were also in operation. Iron probably came from a mine in the area of Žumberak Mts nearby Krašić and areas of Medvednica Mountain. Mining activities along the Carpathian areas significantly developed during the XIth and XIIth century (silver mines in the area of Banská Štiavnica - Slovakia and the extraction of gold from the alluvial deposits in Transylvania), and Germans (Saxons) in what is now the Czech Republic developed metallurgy in XIIIth century. In County of Zvolenska, present-day Slovakia, King Bela the IVth encouraged by privileges arrival of Saxons, for the purpose of re settlement the kingdom after the Mongol invasion in 1242, and to provide income for the royal treasury. In the same time on Croatian territory in XIIIth century, the Saxons exploit vascular deposits of lead and copper sulphides in the area of Maidan (Majdan - tur. mine), Srebrnjak (Srebro – cro. silver, srebrnjak, cro. silver coin) and Tomašica, and iron ore was exploited in the area of Zrinska Gora in Banija Area. . Predecessor of research on the history of mining in Croatia was Emil Laszowski. His two volumes on Mining in Croatia cover the period from Medieval to the beginning of XXth Century. After him, the other geologists have published several papers about some Croatian regions with natural resources, while the medieval period historians dedicated to the study of mining in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Kosovo. Since these areas (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Kosovo) are rich in mineral resources and consequently mining activities are better documented, this paper represents the first synthesis of data on exploitation, smelting and trading of metals in Croatia and medieval Slavonia - the two territorial entities of the former Hungarian-Croatian crown (since 1102). Medieval Slavonia stretched along the Sava River to the mouth of the river Vrbas and covered the part of north western Bosnia. The medieval Croatian coast covered area of Kvarner bay, Lika and Krbava. Determination of the areas of mining activities was performed on the basis of toponymy, geological settings, data on large estates of noble families and by following trade routes through the Croatian Hungarian kingdom, Dalmatia and Italy. The fifteenth century is a period of expanding metallurgical activities (exploitation and smelting of metal ores). In the late fifteenth and the beginning of XVIth century are estimated that in the Kingdom of St. Stephen lives between 3 and 4 million people in nearly 20, 000 settlements. This area has huge reserves of mineral resources, including gold and silver. Exploration and exploitation of gold in the XVth and XVIth century again raised mining activity in the whole of Europe. These activities, in 1470-ies were funded by entrepreneurs, such as János Thurzó, associated with Polish and Bavarian merchants, who also operated in Croatia. Toponymy may indicate mineral resource or activity in a given area eg. Srebrenica (Srebro – cro. silver), Olovo (cro. lead), Rude (cro. Ore), Majdan (tur. Mine), Gvozd (Gvožđe - serb. iron), Železnica, Železno (Željezo - cro. Iron), etc. Following toponymy in Banija (Zrinska and Trgovska mountains) and Kordun, by geological survey in XIIth century, in this area were identified deposits of iron, limonite ore, which contains 89% of limonite (F2O3) and galena (PbS), lead sulphide mineral which contains between 0.01 and 3.30% of silver (Ag). Veins of galena in the Xth and XIth century were exploited for the purpose of obtaining silver. Streams between cities of Zrin and Čatrnja are abound with silver bearing galena, while in the Tomašica, Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are veins of galena and copper ore. Veins of iron ore are found in the area around Gvozdansko and nearby, the veins of copper ore as well in the area around the hill Majdan. In the area Svinica (Svinec - lead), there are veins of galena which gained between 180 to 483 grams of silver per tonne of the ore. Deposits of iron ore in the area of Petrova Gora are located in the Permian sediments which extend in a north-south. These deposits consist of quartz sandstone, conglomerates and breccias. Layers usually contain barite, quartz and siderite, and in northern part, sulphates (gypsum). In the area of Samobor Hills is the most famous village Rude, and in the literature is also known as Rovi (Rov – pit), Fodina, ie. Latin for "mine". In the area of the village Rude Saxons in XIVth century exploited iron ore from Permian sandstone. The excavation of copper veins started at the beginning of the XVIth century. According to data from 1785 they obtained over 13 tons of pure copper from the copper ore (lump of Malachite contained 8.38% of copper, with a little lead, iron, nickel and zinc). Zagreb Mountains contains lead (galena) and zinc (sphalerite) ore. During the XVIth and XVIIth centuries, mines "Zrinski" were active, and paragenesis contains of galena - the most abundant mineral, sphalerite and pyrite, and the ore contained about 0.05% of silver. Over the centuries, the Croatian-Hungarian kings were regularly issued concessions for the exploitation of mineral resources for the benefit of various ecclesiastical and aristocratic landowners. Approval of the charter for the mining industry can be traced back to the XIIIth century, when Arpadović dynasty encouraged establishing their own mining towns in Upper Hungary and Transylvania. The great wave of legal and economic benefits begins with King Charles Robert (1308-1342) A year 1325 provides Baia de Aries free exploitation of gold, in November 1328, Kremnica gets privileges, in March 1337, the king granted the right to exploration of mineral resources in cantons Dobročna, Nevidzdany and Ružomberok. King Ludwig the Ist (1342 - 1382), in November 1357, recognized the same rights to the Zlatna (zlato – gold) and other mining towns, and in 1376 sets standards that some families receive benefits for exploration and exploitation of mineral resources (gold and silver and other metals) on their properties, for example Abraham's son from the family of Hontpazmany, in 1339. On Croatian territory, the first laws related to the exploitation of mineral resources were related to customary law and dating back to the XIIIth century and refer to the Templars. In XIVth century, the concession was granted in 1327 by King Charles Robert, these rights were valid through the entire area of the Crown of St. Stephen, and since 1342, and the country was divided into ten tax units. In this system, the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia has its own tax office and an independent monetary system. The first foundry and mint was active in Pakrac (Pucruch), and is mentioned in 1256. Mint was later (1260) moved to Zagreb (Officina monetáris Zagrabiensis). In XIVth century nobles were holders of the rights of minting money. The introduction of fees on mining occurs by decree of King Louis the Ist in 1351. On the whole area of the Croatian-Hungarian Kingdom, exploitation was prescribed for gold, silver, copper, iron and other. Two-thirds of their taxes were sold directly to the king. The level of fees is dependent on the fact whether the tray in the area under someone's property or without. This tax (feudal) was between the fifth and tenth extracted ore or metal. In XVth century, charters and royal grants allow an increase in activity. In 1405, by order of King Sigismund (1387-1437), ores of gold and silver in the kingdom were a public good that was forbidden to export except in the form of coins. In 1486, King Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490) determined that the deposits discovered in the possession of royalty and other owners paid feudal royal governor for mining and coins (kammergraf), and in 1492, King Vladislav the second (1470-1516) iterates that every owner of areas where there are ores of gold, silver, copper, iron is entitled to mining and processing of a fee to the king - as prescribed by the common law. In XIVth and XVth century, Croatian lords Morović (of Maroth) and Gorjanski (Gara) has the privilege of exploitation of minerals. In 1471, Counts Keglević have the right to exploration and mining in Banija. The three largest medieval Croatian noble families, Frankapans Šubić - Zrinski and Babonić held significant lands with mineral deposits in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Family Babonić ruled on political stage of medieval Slavonia. In 1272 Babonić received fortress town of Samobor as a gift from Croatian Hungarian King Ladislaus the IVth (1272-1290). They increase its area by acquiring works Steničnjak in 1278 which became their stronghold, and in 1280, the territory of southern Slavonia between the Sava, Kupa and Una. During the 1320’s Babonić family increased territory and the area up to the river of Glina (Banija) to Kranjska and up to the north-western areas, between the river Sava, Una, Sana and Vrbas with the city of Blagaj in central Bosnia that present a significant mineral area. Several rulers arose from this family, and this feature gives them the right to the king's account at mintage (silver coins Banaovac). In Prijedor (Bosnia and Herzegovina), thirteen silver coins Banovac were found. In the village of Rude was discovered 267 pieces of silver coins Banovac, probably buried between 1270 and 1280. But despite owning ore-bearing territories and tangible evidence of the existence of coins, the exact origin of precious metals (mining on their own estates or import) metalworking today is not known. The first members of the family Zrinski occur for the first time since the second half of the XIth century, as Bribirščići from their strongholds Bribir in the Dalmatian hinterland, and also called Dukes of Bribir. In the early thirteenth century, these masters of regular positions as the prince of Dalmatian towns, so that in the period between 1277 and 1278, in addition to Bribira, Klis and Skradin, they rule the entire coastal area between Zadar and Omiš, with estates in the hinterland. The political rise of Šubić family is important for XIVth century. To slow down their political rise and influence, in 1347, the Croatian-Hungarian King granted them lands in medieval Slavonia, out of reach of coast, some of which previously belonged to Babonić family. The area of Banija, Pedalj, Stupnica and other places on the Zrinska Gora - and since then they called their selves Zrin. Right on mining was providing on 3 March 1463 by King Matthias Corvinus in favor of Count Petar Zrinski and his descendants. The charter states the privilege to open mines of gold, silver, copper and other metals, for a fee. In order to protect areas rich with hematite (iron) and galena (silver), Zrinski built the first fort Gvozdansko, below which was a town of miners and craftsmen. These silver mines ensured the money needed for the organization of defence against the Turks. The composition and number of people involved in the mining industry are not known, except some scattered data. In 1525, King Ludwig the IInd (1516-1526.) sent to Nikola Zrinski Four Masters for mining (Magistris montanistis) to conduct research and improve technology of exploitation. During the first half of the XVIth Century, thirty miners employed in the field of Gvozdansko were able to annually obtain about 600 tons of silver from lead ore. In 1420 in the area of Maidan (Mine), Tomašica and Srebrnjak (Silver coin), they obtained almost 23, 000 tonnes of lead to yield between 800 to 1, 400 kg of silver. After the death of Nicholas Zrinski the IIIrd, in 1534, his widow Helena and two sons John and Nicholas IVth Subic Zrinski, sold the area of Pedalj and mining complex Gvozdansko. Leonhard Gruber, born in Villach in 1533, was leased smelter Gvozdansko for 7, 600 guldens, and the area has finally been actively mining more than a hundred years (between 1463 and 1578), until the conquest by the Ottomans. In addition to its own mines in Gvozdansko, Nikola Zrinski the IIIrd also runs exploitation of galena at Medvednica Mountain, north of the city of Zagreb, and since 1521, has a privilege awarded by King Ludwig the IInd for exploitation of ore on their properties for a period of ten years. Six years later, Count Nicholas concluded an agreement with the citizens of Zagreb, for the opening of mines in his possession. But when the business gets going, Count deceives citizens and takes the ore. Following litigation, he was forced to pay damages. At the beginning of XIIth century, the founder of the Frankopan dynasty, Count Dujam the Ist (1118-1163), was the first nobleman who rules the island of Krk in the name of Venice. In 1193, the lords of the island gained county Modruš, then gradually most of the medieval Croatian coast, along the Kvarner bay and Gacko. A century later (in 1392), Count John Frankopan became duke of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia, and King Sigismund of Luxembourg was then awarded to him a certificate of their right to use "the mines of gold, silver, copper, lead and iron". Frankapan family gradually increased their territory, covering almost the entire medieval Croatia, from Ozalj and Dubovac na Kupi, to Sinj and Omiš on the river Cetina, with the island of Krk in the west and the fortress of Knin and Bihać on the Una. Son Nicholas Martin the IVth further expanded the territory in the east included the cities of Kozara and Vrbas. Frankopan family in 1443 by Emperor Frederick the IIIrd (1440-1486) get the privilege of minting money, and in 1513, became the owners of Samobor, and mine Rude as well. But there is one quite a puzzle. Despite the fact that they possessed territory rich in minerals that they get the right to mining and that the good work, performed the function of ban, which gives them the right to coin money, there is no trace of mining nor coins from their mint. In the XVIth century there are sources, and in particular the studies, related to the organization and production of copper ores. Regardless of the owners of Samobor, production and further processing and trading left to private entrepreneurs, foreigners mostly of German origin, who take burials on lease. The full echo business could operate up to 200 people, and the production increases by approaching the end of the century. Trade of metals took place along two directions, one to the west through the Croatian territory from north to the south, which connects Hungary with the ports on the Croatian coast and the other on the east of Bosnia, Kosovo and Serbia towards the port of Dubrovnik. Central European axis Hungary - Adriatic (Croatian coast and Dalmatia) represented the access to continental products to the open sea. In this context, the vast majority of transit metal products went through the towns of the Croatian coast (port Bakar, Bakarac and Senj), which were under the authority of Frankapan family and Rijeka under the Austrian nobility. Each generation of nobles pursued their own policies in relation to the economic circumstances. Under the rule of Frankapan family, port Senj and Bakar were free of all taxes which affect their rapid economic development. A growing Ottoman conquest in the XVth century on the continent has changed the political configuration, which affected the ports of the Croatian coast. Thus, in 1469, King Matthias Corvinus annexed Senj to serve as a line of defence against the Ottomans. Dubrovnik represents an important trade hub of metals in the area of the Balkan Peninsula during the XIVth and in XVth century and linked the mines in Bosnia, Serbia and Kosovo, with overseas markets, mainly to Venice. Dubrovnik was most active in transit between the Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, Albania and Bulgaria) to the west. Entrepreneurs from the area of Dubrovnik and Kotor in XIIIth century were active at the money and metals market from the Bosnian and Kosovo mines and placement to the Venetian market. In the second half of XIVth century, Dubrovnik establishes their colonies in Kosovo where precious metals were sold to the European market. Silver mine in Novo Brdo in Kosovo in 1433 reaches annual income of 200.000 ducats according to the knight Bertrandon de la Broquière of Bourgogne. Since the second half of the fifteenth century, intensity of mining activities in the area of the Balkan Peninsula decreases and with it traffic of metals to Dubrovnik. The causes were outdated technology, the influx of cheaper gold with newly discovered American continent, armed conflicts and epidemics affecting the mining areas. Other reasons were a state monopoly on mining, poor management of mining concessions by the Ottomans, the departure of skilled miners, corruption and banditry. |
